Editor’s note: If you’re raising backyard chickens for eggs, you’ll notice that your hens will slowly stop laying eggs over time. In an effort to save money, space and time, you may wish to cull your non-laying hens to make room for new chickens. If so, this online guide will show you a few quick ways to check whether a hen is still a productive layer or not.

Evaluating egg laying hens

by Jacquie Jacob, Tony Pescatore and Austin Cantor

Most flocks of egg laying hens go through the same typical production curve. The flock quickly peaks in egg production and then slowly reduces its level of egg production.

It is important to remember, however, that not all the hens in a flock will be laying at the same rate. Some hens may never lay a single egg while others may go out of production earlier than the majority of the flock. Economically it would be helpful to find such hens and remove them from the flock. To do so requires an ability to assess the persistency and intensity of lay for each hen.

Persistency of lay refers to the number of eggs laid over a specific period of time. Intensity of lay refers to the current level of egg production. With yellow-skinned hens, such as leghorns, loss of pigment from their skin is an important characteristic for determining the persistency of lay. As a pullet grows, yellow pigment is de-posited in the skin, beak, shanks and feet.Once the pullet starts laying eggs, the pigmentis then removed from the pigmented areas toprovide the yellow color in egg yolks.

The pigment is removed from the differentparts of the body in a definite order – from thevent, eye ring, ear lobe, beak (corner of themouth toward the tip), bottom of the foot, theshank (front, back and sides) and finally thehock and top of toes.

Once a hen stops laying eggs, pigment is re-gained to the skin in the same order in which itwas bleach. It is NOT regained in the reverse order.

As previously indicated, the first place to loose pigment is the vent. A hen that has been producing eggs will have very little yellow remaining in the skin around the vent.

The intensity of yellow pigment decreases in the shanks and tops of toes of hens as the number of eggs produced increases. The feet of the hen on the left still has a lot of yellow pigment remaining in its shanks,feet and tops of toes indicating that she has laid less eggs than the other two hens. Most of the yellow has been bleached from the feet of the hen on the far right, indicating that she has laid the most eggs of the three hens and is thus the more persistent layer of the three.

If you are comparing two hens of equal pigmentation the next factor to consider is‘handling qualities.’ Handling qualities are also the main factor to consider when comparing hens from breeds that do not have yellow skin so that the level of pigmentation cannot be used as an indicator of egg production.

‘Handling qualities’ refer to the amount of fat in the abdominal area. Unlike cattle which place their excess dietary energy as fat between muscle fibers producing the marbling effect of beef, poultry species deposit fat under the skin and in the abdominal area in what is referred to as the fat pad. You do not see a marbling effect in poultry meat. That is why poultry meat is so much leaner than beef,especially if you remove the skin with its underling fat.

A hen uses the energy in the feed she eats to produce eggs. If she is not laying eggs, she does not require as much energy and much of the energy from the feed she eats is deposited as fat. The amount of fat in the abdomen,therefore, is a good indicator of a hen’s current level of production, known as the intensity of lay.

To evaluate handling qualities, you need to know where the pubic bones and keel are located in the abdominal area of the hen. Take a pinch of skin just below the pubic bones and roll it gently between the thumb and finger to evaluate its thickness. If a hen is in production her dietary energy is being used for egg production and she will not have much fat in the abdomen. If a hen is not laying, the energy she is eating is not being used for egg production so it is deposited in the fat pad in the abdominal area. A hen which is in production will have a thinner pinch of skin in the abdominal area than one not laying.

Note: When handling the hens be especially careful with the pubic bones, which can break easily if handled too roughly.Another important factor in evaluating laying intensity of hens is ‘abdominal capacity.’ The larger the abdominal capacity the better the current level of production. To evaluate abdominal capacity, place as many fingers as you can between the bottom of the pubic bones and the tip of the keel.Count the number of fingers you can get be-tween these two locations. This is the depth of the abdomen. Place as many fingers as you can between the two pubic bones. Count the number of fingers you can get between these two bones. This is the width of the abdomen.The abdominal capacity is then described as width by depth.

Molt is another factor that can be used to evaluate the level of egg production for individuals in a flock. The short feather in the middle of the wing is known as the axial feather.The 10 feathers outside of the axial feather are the primary feathers.

To evaluate the status of a molt (including whether or not it is in a molt) it is these 10 primary feathers that are examined. Hens in a molt lose their primary feathers, starting with the feather closest to the axial feather and move outwards. Old feathers that have not molted will be worn on the ends and may be dirty and/or broken. New feathers are typically smooth and clean.

Typically when a hen is in molt she goes ‘out of production’ (i.e., stops laying eggs) but some hens will continue to lay while molting,but usually at a reduced rate.

SUMMARY

Economically it is important to remove the unproductive hens from a flock. For those breeds with yellow skin color, level of pigmentation is a good tool for evaluating the level of production of each hen. Yellow-skinned breeds include most of those typically kept for egg production – Leghorn, Plymouth Rock, Rhode Island Reds and New Hampshires.

The Australorp, an egg laying breed used in Australia, are not yellow-skinned. Their skin is black, though the bottoms of the feet and toes are pinkish white. For those hens that do not have yellow skin, the level of production of the hens can be evaluated using handling qualities (level of fat in the abdomen), abdominal capacity, and molt.

Additional offline book resources:

1. Feeding Poultry: The Classic Guide to Poultry Nutrition for Chickens, Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, Gamebirds, and Pigeons
2. Storey’s Guide to Raising Chickens
3. University of California: Feeding Chickens

Copyright 2011 for materials developed by University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension. This publication may be reproduced in portions or its entirety for educational and nonprofit purposes only. Permitted users shall give credit to the author(s) and include this copyright notice. Publications are also available on the World Wide Web at www.ca.uky.edu.

Issued 02-2011

The term “broody hen” basically means a hen who sits on her eggs for the purpose of hatching them.

It doesn’t matter if the eggs are fertile or not; she’ll sit on them and get that “back-off-or-I’ll-kill-you” look in her eyes if anyone tries to stop her.

Do you want your hens to remain broody or is it better to “break” them?

The answer varies depending on your circumstances. If you want the highest ratio of egg per hen per pound of feed, it would be best to break the hen or she’ll lower the flock’s overall percentage of lay.

On the other hand, if you want to hatch your own batch of cute little chicks (for fun or to replace culled hens), you might want to let the hen go through the 21-day cycle.

Stopping a Hen from Being Broody

The process of disrupting a hen’s broodiness is relatively easy. But first, you should take a precaution before your hens become broody to save you the time and trouble.

To lower the chance of one of your hens becoming broody, you should not allow eggs to collect in a nest. Once she is broody, moving her from her nest, moving or covering the nest so she can’t get in, moving the hen to a separate cage or coop, or putting the hen in a broody coop should be sufficient to break her out of broodiness.

What is a broody coop, you ask?

The function of such a cage is exactly opposite what the name implies. A broody coop consists of a hanging wire cage where the hen is housed until she gives up sitting on her eggs.

If you want to know how quick a hen will begin laying eggs again…take note! The longer you let a hen remain broody, the longer she will not lay after being broken. That is why, if you don’t want broody hens, you should break them immediately.

Don’t assume that broodiness is bad. Although most hybrid breeds are bred to remove this trait, broodiness still lies hidden in several strains.

Dual-purpose, heavy, or bantam breeds tend to become broody at certain times. If you are planning to breed “naturally” without a pesky incubator, then you should invest in finding a breed or single chicken who becomes broody easily.

Once a hen becomes broody, she usually stays on the nest until the eggs hatch (that’s only if they’re fertile). The hatching cycle usually takes 21 days, sometimes more, sometimes less.

Additional offline book resources:

1. Feeding Poultry: The Classic Guide to Poultry Nutrition for Chickens, Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, Gamebirds, and Pigeons
2. Storey’s Guide to Raising Chickens
3. University of California: Feeding Chickens

Structure of a chicken, part one and two

by Tokushi Tanaka, State and Area Poultry Specialist

Structurally, birds are among the most highly specialized vertebrates. Their structure includes modifications or adaptations for flight*. The basic structural systems of the chicken are as follows:

Nomenclature

The differences between the sexes can be seen in the appearance of the feathers in the neck, saddle, and the tail sections. There are some secondary sexual differences characteristics of birds, with some exceptions.

The feathers help protect the bird from physical injury and keep the body warm. The wing feathers are, of course, necessary for flight.

Muscles

The muscular system of the bird is characterized by the special development of the large muscles of the breast. The greater part of the breast muscles appears to be on the body itself because of the extensive attachment to the sternum. These muscles weigh about as much as all the rest of the muscles together.

Respiratory System

The respiratory system of birds is quite different from that of mammals. The lungs are firmly attached to the thoracic wall, and the active part of respiration is exhaling. In mammals, the more vigorous part of breathing is inhaling.

Connected to the lungs are four pairs of air sacs located on both sides of the body. These sacs are found in the region from the neck to the abdomen. A single median sac is located in the cavity of the thorax. Besides opening into the lungs, the sacs are directly connected to the cavities of most of the bones of the body.

Skeleton

The skeleton of the bird is compact, lightweight, and very strong. Many bones are hollow; many are fused together, forming very strong structures to which the large muscles used in flight are attached.

Digestive System

The digestive system of the fowl is relatively short, a characteristic feature of meat-eating animals. Fowls do not have any teeth; instead, they have the horny mandibles that form the beak. Food is thoroughly pulverized in the gizzard, which corresponds to the chewing in the herbivore or non-meat-eating animals.

At the junction of the intestine and the rectum are two blind pouches called ceca. These are usually 4 to 6 inches long and more or less completely filled with fecal matter. Their function is not fully understood, though they seem to help in the digestion of fiber.

Urinary System

In the fowl, the urine is discharged into the cloaca and excreted along with the feces. No liquid urine is voided. The white, pasty material appearing in the droppings of the birds is largely uric acid, whereas the nitrogen in the urine of mammals is mainly in the form of urea.

Reproductive system

The male fowl has two testes situated high in the abdominal cavity, along the back, near the forward end of the kidneys. These never descends into an external scrotum, as in the case of other farm animals. They are more or less ellipsoid in shape and are light yellow, frequently having a reddish cast caused by the numerous blood vessels on the surface.

The testis consists of a large number of very slender ducts. The sperms are given off the lining of these ducts, called the somniferous tubules. The all lead eventually to the vas deferens, a tube which conducts the sperm outside the body.

Each vas deferens open into a small papilla. Together these serve as the intomittent organ. They are located on the dorsal wall of the cloaca. The so-called rudimentary copulatory organ of the fowl has no connection with the vasa deferentria and is located on the median ventral portion of one of the transverse folds of the cloaca. It is this rudimentary organ, or male process, that is used in identifying the sex of baby chicks by cloacal examination.

The female usually has only one functional gonad. During the early stage of embryo development, there are two gonads, but only the left one finally develops. The right gonad, if present, is usually a nonfunctional rudiment.

The ovary is situated to the left of the median line of the body behind the lungs and at the forward end of the kidney. It is attached to the dorsal wall of the body cavity. In the inactive condition the ovary appears as a small, whitish mass of irregular shape. In the active condition it appears as a yellowing cluster of spheres of varying sizes. Each sphere is enclosed in a follicle. These spheres are ova, or reproductive cells of the females, and are commonly referred to as “yolks”*.

The oviducts is a large coiled tube occupying a large part of the left half of the abdominal cavity in the laying hen. It is suspended from the dorsal body wall. The oviduct consists of six parts: (1) mouth, (2) funnel or infundibulm, (3) magnum, (4) isthmus, (5) uterus, and (6) vagina, which leads to the cloaca. At the anterior end of the oviduct is its mouth which is spread out beneath the ovary to receive the ova or yolks when they are ready to leave to ovary. The posterior end of the oviduct connects with the cloaca, from which the completed egg is expelled. to which the large muscles used in flight are attached.

Additional offline book resources:

1. Feeding Poultry: The Classic Guide to Poultry Nutrition for Chickens, Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, Gamebirds, and Pigeons
2. Storey’s Guide to Raising Chickens
3. University of California: Feeding Chickens

Upper Respiratory Fungal Infections

by K.J. Theodore of Shagbarkbantams.com

Don’t count those unexplained occasional deaths unexplained deaths as routine…

There’s a reason for most of those deaths, and it’s usually an undetected UPPER RESPIRATORY FUNGAL INFECTION. There are numerous upper respiratory ailments and I’m not going to cover each one here. Instead, I’ll address fungal infections from the most basic of causes, the connection to our environment, and an exciting new treatment. Sound complicated? It’s not.

Following damp weather or after drying out damp coop conditions, the molds that were once actively growing lose the dampness they need to live. When they do, they ‘sporulate’ into mold spores in order to survive for later reproduction. In their mold spore state, they become airborne or stay in litter or sand dust and can be inhaled by our birds. Once inhaled, the spores find a new damp environment in the lungs and trachea of a bird where their growth creates an upper respiratory fungal infection.

Birds that are otherwise strong and healthy can usually fight off a mild infection and recover nicely, although the fungus can remain in the bird and reappear during future events of stress. However, when birds are at their weakest – due to youth, old age, or stressed in some other way – they can die quickly and without noticeable symptoms. Noticeable symptoms include gaping (stretching their neck forward and opening their mouth), coughing, sneezing, sniffling, ‘chirping’, and gasping for air. Sometimes a bird with no noticeable symptoms can be held to your ear to hear crackling, rattling, and gurgling from inside their lungs when they breathe. (Symptoms are more noticeable in waterfowl than in poultry.) The bird can simply suffocate from the fungus in their trachea, or die from the excess fluid created in their lungs as their bodies try to fight off the invaders. A chicken’s trachea is a fraction of the size of a waterfowl’s, so chickens can expire much quicker and without many symptoms.

Up until recently, there had been no known effective systemic treatment against most types of fungal infections (that was easily obtained). Typical antibiotics have no effect against fungi, are only effective against bacteria, and simply ward off secondary infections while the bird’s own body tries to recover.

But there is great news! I have recently had the opportunity to try a relatively new (and EPA approved), form of treatment for upper respiratory fungal infections that is ALSO effective against bacterial and viral infections. It’s a stabilized (UNACTIVATED), 2% chlorine dioxide disinfectant called OXINE. (The label shows how to activate it with citric acid – don’t.) Oxine is available through Seven Oaks Game Farm, Smith Poultry Supply, and Cutler’s Pheasant Supply. The standard treatment is to dilute 6.5 ounces of Oxine in 1 gallon of water. (This provides 1000 ppm of active disinfectant.) Apply using fogging or nebulizing equipment every other day for a week – OR – up to 3 times per day for very severe cases. For those with very small flocks, use the same dilution and apply through the finest mist setting on a bottle with a trigger sprayer. The goal is to get the birds to literally inhale the Oxine mist or fog. Fogging is best. I use the hand-held Fogmaster Tri-Jet Fogger. You can purchase one on the Internet at www.fogmaster.com. Dyna-Fog also has a nice product at www.dynafog.com.

Once the birds inhale Oxine, it works as a disinfectant to kill the growing fungus in the trachea and lungs by direct contact. Once killed, the fungus is gone forever from the bird’s system and eliminates any further irritation from the infection. The only time Oxine won’t work is if it’s administered after the bird’s own defenses have ‘walled off’ the fungus (put a coating over it to isolate it from the healthy cells). If this happens, the Oxine cannot make direct contact with the fungus, and therefore, cannot kill it. It is then up to the bird’s own defenses to recover.

At prescribed dilutions, Oxine is so safe that you could use it as a mouthwash! Oxine is commonly used to treat human and animal drinking water and is ‘cutting-edge’ treatment in the egg producing and commercial poultry industry. Those that are aware of Oxine, fog their flocks once a week as part of their preventative routine. (Oxine has also been proven to virtually eliminate avian influenza from a select group of turkey houses in the upper Midwest.)

Oxine disinfects better than chlorine bleach and kills all known bacteria, molds, spores, and viruses. It will even kill the airborne mold spores as you fog. It also has a residual disinfecting effect when you fog the entire coop or pen in addition to the birds, and it makes a good egg sanitizer. (Getting the fog into the birds’ drinking water or feed while fogging is nothing to worry about, and is probably beneficial.)

Molds, mold spores, and fungus play a key role in bird loss. But most breeders have come to expect a certain number of unexplained losses among their youngsters. This is especially true among waterfowl breeders. You know the old saying ‘don’t count your chickens before they’ve hatched’? Well, I like to add to that ‘don’t count your ducklings until they’re 2 weeks old’. If there’s going to be a serious developmental problem within the waterfowl, it usually shows itself within 2 weeks in the brooder. You shouldn’t have losses after 2 weeks that are unexplainable. If you do, you’ve probably got an upper respiratory fungal infection.

About the author: Thanks to K.J. Theodore for contributing this poultry article to poultryOne.com. You may reach the author at ShagbarkBantams.com.

Additional offline book resources:

1. Feeding Poultry: The Classic Guide to Poultry Nutrition for Chickens, Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, Gamebirds, and Pigeons
2. Storey’s Guide to Raising Chickens
3. University of California: Feeding Chickens

by K.J. Theodore of Shagbarkbantams.com

They don’t call them “CHICKEN” for nothing!

STRESS is a big factor in determining the overall health of our birds. Stress comes in many forms and seems to affect the best of our show birds the most. There’s something inherent about the genetic makeup it takes to produce the finest colors and the best type and a bird’s reaction to stress. Everyone has heard of the relationship between the ‘mutt’ dog and good health. The same seems true with fancy fowl. The finer the breed, the more susceptible they are to stress and disease.

They don’t call them ‘chicken’ for nothing. By nature, most chickens (and waterfowl), are cowards. They’re afraid of their own shadow. Poultry are prey and their genetic code predisposes them to the flight instinct, even when they’re hand-reared and tame.

Fear creates stress and there’s a sound medical reason why stress allows disease to take hold in an otherwise healthy bird. Without giving you a poultry veterinary science lesson, let’s just say that stress causes changes to occur in the gut that lowers the pH. When the pH is low, ‘Gram negative’ bacteria become comfortable in the environment and begin to take hold and replicate. The rest you can imagine…

But let’s talk about the many things that stress out our birds. Some of these may be a surprise to you. My first example is severe cold or heat – or a dramatic change from one to the other. Only healthy birds are capable of making it through the night when it’s sub-zero. And only healthy birds are capable of enduring severe heat if there’s no water, breeze, or shade for them to find relief in. Poultry are more susceptible to this than people realize. Have you ever seen the flurry of activity that takes place right before nightfall amongst the wild birds? They’re filling up with food and water to make it through the night. You can almost tell when a storm is coming because they’ll sense the barometric change and feed heavily to weather the storm. Your own chickens and waterfowl will have a last meal and drink at dusk – before they can’t see anymore to roost and settle in for the night. If you can’t feed and water twice in a particular day and you have a choice, choose to feed and water late rather than early for the above reasons. The late feed is most important during cold weather.

Another concern of cold weather is frostbite. Single comb varieties with long wattles suffer the most. Some believe that massaging Vaseline into the comb will help prevent frostbite. I’ve tested this and found no evidence that the roosters who received massage and/or Vaseline fared any better than those that didn’t. Keeping drafts out of the coop to keep wind chill effect down is probably more effective. A sign of frostbite is having the comb or wattles turn white. Eventually they turn black and scab over. In severe cases, the bird will lose the part that turns black.

Breeding and laying are stressful for many reasons. It’s especially stressful if it’s the first season of maturity for either sex. (Most losses due to diseases such as Mareks occur right before or right after sexual maturity.) I’ve heard old wives tales about young roosters ‘going crazy’ if they’re not allowed to breed. I don’t think there’s medical poultry science to support that – but you get the picture. ‘First egg’ for a female can be difficult – both in the hormone changes that occur and in the ‘effort’ it takes.

The nutritional requirements of a laying hen or duck must be met. Oyster shell is a good source of calcium and should be available to your females on a free-feed basis. If the calcium requirement is not met to help form the eggshells, the female will actually steal it from her own bones. I’d like to caution you about oyster shell though. The free-feed of calcium before sexual maturity can cause kidney damage. Also, some people mistakenly use it as grit, as well as a source of calcium. Since finely ground oyster shell literally dissolves in the crop, it never reaches the gizzard in its hard form. The gizzard is where the food is actually ground up so this is where the grit is needed. Large particle oyster shell has a better chance of reaching the gizzard. I prefer providing sand or poultry grit (sold at most feed stores) at all times if your birds are confined. If they free-range, they’ll find grit on their own. Nature provides this instinct. One last thought on laying females – make sure they have plenty of water. Their water intake increases when they’re producing an egg. A little flavored probiotic liquid in their water will encourage them to drink more. See my article on probiotics for how to use them.

Although it seems benign, a change to your birds’ environment or housing can also be stressful. If I’m going to change around cages or separate birds that were accustomed to being together, I usually won’t do it when they’re stressed for some other reason. I once had a hen that was one of a pair that were alike in all ways. They had never been apart. I wanted to show them so I split them up (since they were lovingly pulling each other’s beards out). The one bird survived just fine – I still show her today. But it sent the other into a tailspin. She never quieted down. She paced the cage with no rest. Then she was further stressed with PT testing. She didn’t survive long after that. She was a nice little bird – I learned a hard but subtle lesson. Stress is a little like having allergies – one or two stresses may be livable, but if you pile on a bunch of changes at the same time, the stress they cause can have a cumulative effect. So I try not to throw too much at them at once.

Grooming practices of the Fancy such as bathing, pulling feathers, clipping and shaping beaks and nails, and treating for feather mite, are all stressful and unnatural to our birds. If you have a grooming routine you like to follow, try performing them over a longer period of time instead of doing everything to one bird in one day. And whatever you do, please don’t hold those birds upside down by their feet. It turns out there’s a link between respiratory disease vulnerability and being held upside down. I’ve seen people do this at the shows and swaps. Aren’t these birds stressed enough?

I can’t cover everything here but the article wouldn’t be complete unless I mentioned our birds’ number one stresser – showing. Many of the reasons showing is stressful are listed above. Things like changes in their environment, grooming, temperature changes, etc. Now imagine the number of illnesses your birds are exposed to at a show. Add to that the travel, the chaos, the noise, the bird next door to yours in the showroom that wants ‘a piece’ of your bird – and your bird knows it.

I hope I haven’t scared you off with all of these examples of stress. Sometimes stress can be a positive thing. Why do think little ‘Rocky’ struts his stuff at the show for the judge, but looks like a roost potato at home? Just remember the stresses our birds endure everyday for our fun and recreation, and eliminate the stress that you can. You’ll have healthier birds as a result.

About the author:

Thanks to K.J. Theodore for contributing this poultry article to poultryOne.com. You may reach the author at ShagbarkBantams.com.

Additional offline book resources:

1. Feeding Poultry: The Classic Guide to Poultry Nutrition for Chickens, Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, Gamebirds, and Pigeons
2. Storey’s Guide to Raising Chickens
3. University of California: Feeding Chickens

by K.J. Theodore of www.shagbarkbantams.com

Amprolium shortage? Why are you worried?

I’m not. That’s because I practice prevention. And if there’s anything to practice prevention for, it’s COCCIDIOSIS. Since Coccidiosis is one of the most flock-devastating protozoan parasitic diseases, ‘Cocci’ management should forever be at the forefront of any good health and nutrition program.

If you’ve ever survived a round of Cocci in your own flock, you know what I mean about devastating. If you’re new to the Fancy with a cute little backyard flock, your days are numbered for heartbreak.

It will come from nowhere in the form of a once healthy nice little bird suddenly looking as though they’ve ruffled their feathers. They may already be sulking in a corner. Then comes the bloody diarrhea or the oozing of clear fluid from the mouth when you pick them up. By this time, it’s too late – most of the damage is already done, and it’s only taken about 96 hours to get there. Cocci outbreaks are particularly disappointing because they usually strike our youngsters.

Adult birds have some resistance to it, but only to the particular strain they’ve already been exposed to. If you bring in a brand new strain from another farm on your shoes, and conditions are right for their multiplication (damp litter or soil, spring-like temperatures), the adults will fall victim too. (This is a good reason to practice ‘biosecurity’, which is a subject for another day.)

Chickens are not the only birds affected by Coccidiosis. Turkeys, geese, and ducks, among others, are affected as well. Cocci are a naturally occurring protozoan parasite found in almost every soil sample. There are about nine different strains within the Eimeria genus that do harm to chickens. Some of these strains are questionable, but most are verifiable. I happen to know that my soil samples contain Eimeria of the Necatrix stain. There was poultry kept on my farm before I owned it, and that virtually guarantees the Cocci eggs (oocysts), are on site.

The nature of a chicken or duck’s eating habits – poking and dibbling amongst the litter (and manure), makes them vulnerable to cocci infection. The cocci oocysts are shed by previously infected birds through their droppings into the litter or on the ground. Then another bird comes along and ingests the oocysts, which are then crushed by the gizzard and the sporozoites are released. To over-simplify – from there, they live, replicate, and destroy different parts of the digestive tract, depending on the strain. The entire process from ingestion to the shedding of oocysts in the droppings is between 4 and 6 days.

The damage is irreversible. It is only when a bird is infected with a relatively small quantity of oocysts, that the bird then has an opportunity to fight off the infection and build immunity to future infection. Keeping litter fairly clean helps to keep the oocyst population down, and gives your birds a better chance of surviving their infection.

Keeping the litter of your youngsters very clean until adulthood is one way of reducing cocci outbreaks, but there are better ways. One better way is to feed your youngsters medicated feed from hatch to adulthood. To date, this is the most effective way. The type of medicated feed you want to use is one that contains Amprolium. Some starters also include Bacitracin, which is OK, but that prevents most forms of enteritis – which sometimes occurs as a result of a mild case of Coccidiosis.

There is also a fairly new Cocci vaccine on the market. It is available through at least one of the suppliers who advertise in the Poultry Press. I would call around though, more than one may carry it.

For those waterfowl breeders out there, I have good news. Previously thought to be harmful to ducks, the latest veterinary science claims that neither Amprolium nor Bacitracin are toxic to ducks. As part of a study, I have had my waterfowl on medicated feed for over a year now, and everyone is thriving.

I don’t think this article would be complete unless I cautioned you against using some of the previously recommended medications for Cocci, that have now been designated as toxic to chickens and waterfowl at dosages required to be effective. The primary ones are the family of Sulfonamides. Among these drugs, sulfaquionoxaline (‘SQ’), is one of the most toxic. There’s also a sulfamethazine-based product sold at a well-known farm supply store under the product name ‘Sulmet’. I personally would never use this product on my birds.

In conclusion, remember your easy options for never having to weep over the death of your next ‘Best of Show’ from something as simple to control as Coccidiosis. Start and maintain your youngsters on medicated feed for the first year, keep that litter clean and dry to keep the population of oocysts in check, or, consider the Cocci vaccine. And, if all else fails, there’s always the very expensive Amprolium in liquid form until the powder’s back.

About the author:

Thanks to K.J. Theodore for contributing this poultry article to poultryOne.com. You may reach the author at ShagbarkBantams.com.

Additional offline book resources:

1. Feeding Poultry: The Classic Guide to Poultry Nutrition for Chickens, Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, Gamebirds, and Pigeons
2. Storey’s Guide to Raising Chickens
3. University of California: Feeding Chickens

History of Chicken Breeds/Breeding

All domestic chicken breeds (scientific name – gallus domesticus) originated from the Red Asian Jungle Fowl. Believe it or not, your funky frizzle bird or colorful Barred Plymouth Rock rooster came from this majestic, wild bird.

Through many years of extensive breeding, we have finally arrived at the chicken breeds available now. Who knows? Fifty years from now people may look back at the chickens we have now the way we look back at the Red Asian Jungle Fowl!

Breeding chickens can become quite complicated, but always remember one interesting point. Because all chickens originated from the Red Asian Jungle Fowl, if you let your birds breed freely between species you will end up with a mangy chicken that looks just like its ancestor (at least, that’s what would happen in theory).

Unless having a flock of odd-colored chickens is your goal, or if you’re experimenting with creating a new hybrid, keep separate breeds apart.

What is a breed?

There’s no use talking about breeds if we don’t first clarify what we’re talking about! Birds are grouped together by similarities in their feathers, body size, color and carriage. These are called breeds, and each breed belongs to a large, more general group of birds. For example, the Leghorn is a breed and it belongs to the Mediterranean group.

Some breeders delight in the challenge of developing new breeds. There are countless, beautiful birds out there that are the result of the hard work and perseverance of professional breeders. However, beginners should settle for just breeding the common chicken strains before pushing on toward such a difficult endeavor. There’s nothing worse than diving in too deep too fast and getting burnt out before discovering how fun it can be!

Before you start breeding chickens

Take a moment to review some important concepts of breeding. First of all, decide what you want your chickens’ offspring to be for. Will they be used for strictly laying? If so, you should “breed out” several different traits, including broodiness. Why? A broody hen stops her laying cycle, and this reduces the overall egg/chicken ratio. You should also breed out the hens that eat a lot and lay very little. The less feed you have to feed them, the greater your profit.

Maybe you want to breed excellent chickens to exhibit. If so, you’ll probably want to keep the birds that match the Standard’s guidelines and cull those that don’t fit.

What about meat birds? If you are trying to breed chickens for consumption, then you’ll obviously only want to breed the fattest, fastest growing birds in the flock. The faster the bird grows, the less time and resources you spend raising it and the bigger your profit!

Any trait that is important to the breeder’s goal is constantly emphasized, while irrelevant traits are ignored. Any characteristic that seriously goes against the breeder’s goal(s) and proves to be detrimental is selectively bred against.

Traits you want

Fecundity, or the ability to lay eggs, is of obvious importance to the chicken farmer who is wanting a new flock of layers. That’s why is helps to keep a record of all the hens’ and how they lay. Understandably, this trait is generally ignored by meat and show breeders.

Plumage color is basically ignored by someone breeding layers, but is important for those breeding exhibition chickens. Keep an eye on the chickens and select the ones that match the Standard. For example, if the bird shouldn’t have feathers on its feet and you see one that has, remove it. Also, for meat breeders, the birds should have white feathers since dark ones leave black pigment spots in the skin. Most people lose their appetites when they see a polka-dotted drumstick on their plate.

Foraging ability and fertility are ignored by commercial layer breeders, but you should decide for yourself what you want your chickens to be like. Feed costs are reduced if the chickens know how to forage for themselves, and if you are a backyard chicken raiser then fertility should be bred into the chickens.

Size is VERY vital. For layers, they shouldn’t be overly large because large layers generally don’t lay as well as smaller hens. On the other hand, if you are raising meat birds then this trait should be bred into the chickens continuously!

Additional offline book resources:

1. Feeding Poultry: The Classic Guide to Poultry Nutrition for Chickens, Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, Gamebirds, and Pigeons
2. Storey’s Guide to Raising Chickens
3. University of California: Feeding Chickens

by K.J. Theodore of ShagbarkBantams.com

What the heck are probiotics?

PROBIOTICS are a dietary supplement that increase the population of the ‘good’ bacteria (micro flora), which are needed in the intestinal tract in order to process food properly. The use of probiotics as a daily supplement has become a popular routine in the commercial poultry industry, particularly following antibiotic treatment.

One commonly known probiotic is called Lactobacillus Acidophilus, and is naturally occurring in some food such as yogurt. But direct application through a liquid or powdered form mixed into drinking water is the most effective route.

Good bacteria also help fight off the bad bacteria that passes through the system, before it has a chance to take hold. Introducing probiotics into the digestive system everyday to ward off bacterial infection is known as ‘selective exclusion’.

Selective exclusion is a very good way to keep your birds healthy and disease resistant throughout their life. I use probiotics in my own flock, along with a vitamin and mineral supplement on a daily basis. I also use probiotics before, during, and after both showing and breeding.

For showing, the probiotics help the birds ward off most illnesses they could become exposed to in that environment.

For breeding, one benefit is the tendency of the laying hens to drink more water, when the water is treated with flavored probiotics. Both breeding and showing are very stressful times in your birds’ lives, and the vulnerability to disease increases during those times. The use of probiotics helps to reduce that vulnerability.

During times of stress or the use of antibacterials (antibiotics), hormonal changes can occur, causing the pH of the small intestine to rise. This allows existing bad bacteria to take a foothold in the lining of the intestine because of the deterioration of the protective mucus lining. Because of this, the ‘villi’ (little fingers), which normally exist in the small intestine, can be lost. Villi slow the movement of food as it passes through so that nutrients can be absorbed through the intestinal wall. The term ‘going light’ can occur when villi are lost. Increasing good gut bacteria through the use of probiotics will compete against the bad bacteria, change the pH environment, allow nutrient absorption, and prevent infection. Probiotic treatment has also shown an ability to stimulate appetite – a valuable thing when trying to maintain the weight of an ailing bird.

If you’re not inclined to use probiotics on a daily basis, then at least consider their use immediately following antibiotic treatment. When your bird is treated with antibiotics, all bacteria are killed off – good and bad. Treating with probiotics immediately after the use of antibiotics, help to repopulate the gut with the good bacteria. In many cases, this can ward off a secondary infection, such as E Coli. E. Coli has been shown to exist in virtually all manure samples, but only becomes a problem when the digestive environment is friendly to its reproduction.

Here are two ways you can introduce probiotics into your birds’ diet. If you have a very small flock, GNC (in most shopping malls), sells a flavored liquid version of L. Acidophilus. I’ve used that at the rate of .7cc per bantam per day in their drinking water. If you have a large flock, consider a powdered version that you also mix into the drinking water. This version is better because it contains several other beneficial bacteria besides the L. Acidophilus. (Of all of the beneficial bacteria though, L. Acidophilus is the most important.) First State Veterinary Supply, which advertises in the Poultry Press, has a good powdered product, but I would call the other suppliers as well to see if they carry an equivalent product.

About the author:

Thanks to K.J. Theodore for contributing this poultry article to poultryOne.com. You may reach the author at ShagbarkBantams.com.

Additional offline book resources:

1. Feeding Poultry: The Classic Guide to Poultry Nutrition for Chickens, Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, Gamebirds, and Pigeons
2. Storey’s Guide to Raising Chickens
3. University of California: Feeding Chickens

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Additional offline book resources:

1. Feeding Poultry: The Classic Guide to Poultry Nutrition for Chickens, Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, Gamebirds, and Pigeons
2. Storey’s Guide to Raising Chickens
3. University of California: Feeding Chickens

Poultry and game bird producers realize that chicks must be kept warm or brooded during the first weeks of life. Surprisingly, improper brooding is one of the most common causes of stress in poultry flocks.

Three basic methods are used to brood chicks.

• The chicks have localized heat source and access to a cooler, unheated area. The chicks determine their own heating needs by moving from hot to cold areas and vice versa. This method is known as spot brooding.
• A large area around the brooders is warmed to the same temperature when whole house brooding. The chicks have no choice between warm and cool areas.
• Partial-house brooding–Partial-house brooding is much like whole house brooding, since the total brooding area is warmed. To save energy, however, the brooding area is reduced to the minimum amount needed for the size of chicks. As the chicks grow, the brooding area is increased in accordance to their sizes. Good ventilation is essential with all brooding systems but especially partial-house brooding.

Light the brooders 24 hours before the chicks hatch or arrive. Determine if the brooders are working properly, and adjust the temperature to 90 to 95 °F below the outer edge of the brooder (1 inch above the litter). In time of stress or vaccination reactions, increase brooder temperatures about 5 ° above the recommended temperature until the chicks recover.

Place an 18-inch-high, solid-type brooder guard around each brooder. Locate the guard 3 to 4 feet from the edge of the brooder. The guard prevents floor drafts and keeps chicks near the heat. In summer, enlarge the ring to keep chicks from getting too hot. Expand the guard a little each day (about 20 to 25 percent total area increase) until it is no longer needed after 7 to 14 days.

Corrugated cardboard makes an excellent brooder guard and can be discarded when it becomes soiled. In hot weather, hardware cloth or similar mesh material may be used instead of solid guard. Most of these guards are cleaned, disinfected, and reused.

Place an adequate number of feeders and waterers around each brooder. Provide at least two 1-gallon waterers and two 12-inch or 18-inch chick feeders for every 100 chicks. Feed placed on a few feeder lids or egg flats under each brooder encourages the chicks to start eating sooner.

Sprinkle a pile of feed on each lid before placing chicks under brooder. Remove lids when all feed is eaten or after 4 to 6 days.

Place long waterers or feeders in the brooding area, pointing toward the heat source. If placed parallel to the brooder guard, small chicks may be prevented from returning to the warmth. (At 1 day of age, they have not learned they sometimes have to go around a long object to get back to the warmth.) Placing feeders in a “wagon spoke” fashion also insures that a section of each feeder is always in a comfort zone. Locate the inner end of the feeder under or slightly outside the outer edge of the brooder or hover. Never place all the waterers and feeders directly under the brooder. The area under the brooder must be kept clear for brooding the chicks.

The day-old chick’s temperature is about 3 °F below that of an adult’s. Its body temperature starts rising about 4 days of age and reaches its maximum at 10 days. The chick needs time to develop temperature control (2 to 4 weeks). As the chick grows older, the downy coat is replaced with feathers, and brooder temperature must be reduced according to the temperature schedule.

Under this brooding schedule, the brooding temperature is reduced 5 °F each week. At 5 weeks of age, chicks maintain their own body temperatures if the room temperature is kept near 70 degrees.

Use lower brooding temperatures during warm months. Most poultry houses are not tight enough to maintain these temperatures constantly in winter. Insure adequate warmth in winter by using the higher brooding temperature; when cold nights cool the house, chicks are likely to have enough warmth.

In contrast to what many think, the most frequent error observed when brooding in the South is overheating rather than too little heat. Many producers need to learn proper brooding to reduce losses.

Check the comfort of the chicks several times each day, especially in the evening. Make adjustments to maintain chick comfort. Contented peeping and even distribution of chicks around and under the brooder indicate comfortable conditions. If the chicks chirp and huddle to one side of the brooder, there is a draft. When the temperature is too cold, the chicks chirp sharply and huddle together under the brooder. If the chicks move away from the brooder, pant, and are drowsy, the temperature is too warm.

With steadily increasing energy costs, a strong emphasis must be placed on sound brooder management and operation. Some tips for conserving energy are listed.

• Use the correct brooder height, as recommended by the brooder manufacturer. A higher brooder adjustment increases fuel usage, while lower brooder adjustment increases the danger of igniting flammable litter and burning the chicks. Maintain a minimum clearance of 5 to 6 inches over the chicks’ backs.
• Use dry litter material for brooding. Additional energy is needed to evaporate moisture.
• Check the accuracy of brooder thermostats and thermometers to insure proper heat for the chicks.
• Solid brooder guards keep the heat closer to the brooder.
• Place brooders near the center of the house. This reduces heat loss through walls and prevents drafts.
• Frequently clean burner orifices, adjust pilot lights, and check for proper gas line pressure.
• Brood the maximum number of chicks under each brooder, but do not overcrowd.
• Shut off half the brooder pilot lights when all the brooders are no longer needed. The best practice is to turn off every other brooder. The remaining brooders help prevent serious problems if internal house temperatures drop suddenly.

Additional offline book resources:

1. Feeding Poultry: The Classic Guide to Poultry Nutrition for Chickens, Turkeys, Ducks, Geese, Gamebirds, and Pigeons
2. Storey’s Guide to Raising Chickens
3. University of California: Feeding Chickens

By Tom W. Smith, Jr., Ph.D., Emeritus Professor of Poultry Science, Mississippi State University

Mississippi State University does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, religion, national origin, sex, age, disability, or veteran status.

Information Sheet 1338
Extension Service of Mississippi State University, cooperating with U.S. Department of Agriculture. Published in furtherance of Acts of Congress, May 8 and June 30, 1914. Ronald A. Brown, Director

This document is public information and may be reproduced in part or in total. It should not be used to imply endorsement of any specific brand or product. Mississippi residents may get a printed copy of this publication through their county Extension offices.